Mongol Christian Alliances with the Crusaders and the Defeat of the Caliphate

Kitbuqa Noyan, a devout Eastern Christian and prominent general in the Mongol Empire, was a key figure in the Mongol conquests of the Middle East. As a trusted lieutenant of Hulagu Khan, he played a crucial role in the 1258 sack of Baghdad and the subsequent conquest of Damascus in 1260. His leadership was particularly significant as he was left in charge of the Mongol forces in Syria after Hulagu's return to Mongolia. Kitbuqa's life ended in 1260 at the pivotal Battle of Ain Jalut, a defeat that marked the halt of Mongol expansion westward.

Hulagu Khan's court held a notable pro-Christian leaning, largely influenced by his mother, Sorghaghtani Beki, a Nestorian Christian, and his favorite wife, Doquz Khatun, also a prominent Christian. This Christian presence at the highest levels of the Mongol court translated into preferential treatment for Christians in conquered territories. For instance, during the brutal sack of Baghdad, Christians were often spared. In Damascus, following its capture, a Christian Mass was reportedly celebrated in the Grand Mosque, and accounts, though some debated by modern historians, describe Kitbuqa entering the city triumphantly alongside Christian rulers.

Alliances Between Christian Mongols and Christian Crusaders:

The Mongol conquests in the Middle East led to a period of complex interactions and even alliances between the Mongol forces and some Crusader states. Kitbuqa's entry into Damascus is a prime example of this. He was said to have entered the city alongside Hethum I, King of Armenia, and Bohemond VI, Prince of Antioch and Count of Tripoli.

Hethum I of Armenia was a particularly ardent proponent of alliance with the Mongols. Recognizing the immense power of the Mongol Empire and the threat it posed to his kingdom, Hethum shrewdly chose to submit to Mongol overlordship early on. He traveled to the Mongol court in 1254-1255, seeking an alliance against the Mamluks and other Muslim powers. He believed that the Mongols, with their own Christian elements and anti-Muslim agenda, offered the best hope for the survival of his kingdom and for the broader Christian cause in the East. This alliance provided the Mongols with valuable local knowledge and military support from Armenian forces.
Bohemond VI of Antioch, a Frankish Crusader ruler, also entered into an alliance with the Mongols. Facing the Mamluk threat, he saw the Mongols as a powerful potential ally. This alliance, facilitated by Armenian mediation (Bohemond's wife was an Armenian princess), provided the Mongols with access to the Crusader states' strategic coastal positions and some military support. However, this alliance was controversial among other European Crusaders, some of whom were wary of aligning with a non-Christian power.

These alliances, though often short-lived and pragmatic, demonstrated a shared interest in weakening Muslim power in the region.

Mongol Treatment of Jews:

During these campaigns, the Mongol treatment of Jewish communities varied and was often less consistent than their treatment of Christians. While Christians sometimes received preferential treatment, Jews generally faced the same fate as the general Muslim population during massacres and sieges. In Baghdad, for example, Jewish communities, like their Muslim neighbors, suffered heavily during the sack. There is no consistent evidence of specific Mongol policies either favoring or persecuting Jews as a distinct group during these campaigns; their fate was largely tied to the general outcome for the inhabitants of conquered cities.

Quotes and Reactions from Christian European Leaders:

The Mongol conquests, particularly the defeat of Islamic powers in the Middle East, were met with a mix of awe, hope, and strategic consideration by Christian European leaders. While direct quotes expressing "divine mission" from European leaders regarding the Mongol actions are rare, the sentiment of hope for a powerful new ally against Islam was palpable.

Many European rulers, including Pope Innocent IV and King Louis IX of France, sent envoys to the Mongol court, initially hoping to convert them to Christianity and form a grand alliance against the Mamluks and other Muslim states. They saw the Mongol advance as a potential fulfillment of prophecies or as a divinely sent force to aid Christendom.
The news of the fall of Baghdad and the subsequent Mongol push into Syria was received with great excitement in Europe. Pope Alexander IV (who succeeded Innocent IV) continued to pursue diplomatic efforts with the Mongols, though these often faltered due to the vast distances and cultural differences.
While direct triumphant quotes about the "divine mission" of the Mongols from European leaders are hard to pinpoint, the general sentiment was that of seeing God's hand in the misfortunes of the Muslims. For example, the Chronicle of Matthew Paris, a contemporary English historian, recorded the devastation wrought by the Mongols in the East, expressing both fear of their power and a sense that their actions were a form of divine judgment against the infidels. He wrote of the "Tartars" (Mongols) as "scourges of God" against the enemies of Christ, suggesting a providential view of their conquests.

While Kitbuqa's personal faith and Hulagu's Christian leanings certainly influenced their actions, the primary motivation for Mongol expansion remained geopolitical and strategic. However, for many Christians, both in the East and in Europe, the Mongol victories over powerful Islamic empires were seen through a lens of divine intervention, offering a beacon of hope for the future of Christendom.